Critical Thinking the Art of Argument 2nd Edition Pdf Free

Critical Thinking: The Art of Statement, Second Edition

By George Due west. Rainbolt and Sandra L. Dwyer

Contents:

PREFACE xvii

I N T R O D U C T I O N How to Use This Book i

C H A P T E R i Critical Thinking and Arguments 4

What Is Critical Thinking? 5

What Is an Argument? 6

Statements 7

Statements and Sentences 8

Why Think Critically? 12

Identifying Arguments xiii

The First Three Steps xiii

Wait for an Endeavor to Convince 13

Observe the Conclusion thirteen

Find the Premises fourteen

Complicating Factors 16

Indicator Words Are Imperfect Guides 16

Sentence Gild sixteen

Conclusions and Premises Not in Declarative Class 16

Unstated Premises and Unstated Conclusions 20

Things That Are Not Arguments 24

Assertions 24

Descriptions 24

Questions and Instructions 25

Explanations 25

Putting Arguments into Standard Form 31

Master Arguments & Subarguments 32

Diagramming Arguments 41

Chapter Summary 42

Guide: Identifying and Standardizing Arguments 43

C H A P T Due east R 2 What Makes a Good Statement? 44

The Two Characteristics of a Good Statement 45

Truthful Premises 49

Audience 49

The Problem of Ignorance 51

Proper Form 52

Deductive and Inductive Arguments 57

Deductive Forms 57

Inductive Forms 58

Guide: Terms Used in Logic, Philosophy, and Math to Refer

to Skillful and Bad Arguments 61

Relevance 64

Dependent and Independent Premises 67

Arguing about Arguments 70

Some Improper Forms: Fallacies of Relevance 72

Fallacy: Cerise Herring 73

Fallacy: Easy Target 74

Fallacy: Appeal to Fear 76

Fallacy: Entreatment to Pity 76

Fallacy: Appeal to Popularity 78

Fallacy: Appeal to Novelty or Tradition 78

Fallacy: Advertizement Hominem 81

Fallacy: Appeal to Ignorance 84

Chapter Summary 86

Argument Forms Studied in the Affiliate 86

Guide: Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Arguments 87

C H A P T E R 3 Bounds and Conclusions 89

Empirical Premises 90

Testimonal Premises 92

Definitional Premises 96

Statements by Experts 100

Appropriate Credentials 100

Reliability 101

Bias 101

Area of Expertise 102

Fallacy: Inappropriate Expertise 103

Expert Consensus 104

Guide: Assuming the Statement of an Expert 104

Guide: Proper Citation of Experts 105

Premises and the Internet 105

A Common Mistake 107

Conclusions 111

Force of Conclusions 111

Scope of Conclusions 112

Affiliate Summary 118

C H A P T East R 4 Language 119

Identifying Definitions 120

Extension and Intension 120

Genus and Species 122

Dictionary Definitions 123

Guide: Dictionaries 125

Technical Definitions 126

Evaluating Definitions 130

Evaluating Lexicon Definitions 130

Right Extension 131

Correct Intension 132

Persuasive Definitions 134

Evaluating Technical Definitions 135

Language and Clarity 137

Ambiguity 137

Fallacy: Equivocation 138

Fallacies: Composition and Division 140

Vagueness 142

Language and Emotion 145

Euphemism 146

Rhetorical Devices 147

Chapter Summary 150

Argument Forms Studied in the Chapter 151

C H A P T Due east R five Propositional Arguments 152

Identifying Propositional Statements 153

Negations 154

Disjunctions 155

Conjunctions 159

Conditionals 160

Conditionals: Some Complications 161

Guide: Negation, Disjunction, Conjunction, and Conditional

Indicator Words 162

Evaluating Propositional Arguments 164

Denying a Disjunct 164

Fallacy: Affirming an Inclusive Disjunct 166

Affirming an Sectional Disjunct 166

Fallacy: False Dichotomy 168

Affirming the Ancestor 170

Fallacy: Denying the Antecedent 171

Denying the Consistent 172

Fallacy: Affirming the Consequent 173

Tri-Conditional 174

Fallacy: Begging the Question 177

Chapter Summary 180

Argument Forms Studied in the Affiliate 181

Guide: Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Propositional

Arguments 182

C H A P T E R 6 Categorical Arguments 184

Identifying Categorical Statements 185

The Four Standard Categorical Statement Forms 185

Universal Affirmative: All G1 Are G2 188

Categorical Statements: Important Details 188

Detail 1: Venn Diagrams 188

Detail two: Empty Groups 190

Detail 3: Group Variables 192

Particular 4: Complex Groups 193

Universal Negative: All G1 Are Not G2 194

Particular Affirmative: Some G1 Are G2 196

Item Negative: Some G1 Are Not G2 197

Evaluating Categorical Arguments with Ane Premise 200

Contradiction 200

Fallacy: Disruptive a Contrary and a Contradictory 202

Conversion 204

Distribution 206

Complements 207

Contraposition 207

Obversion 209

Evaluating Categorical Arguments with Two Bounds 212

Identifying Chiselled Syllogisms 212

Evaluating Categorical Syllogisms: The Test Method 217

The Equal Negatives Test 217

The Quantity Test 218

The Distributed Conclusion Test 219

Guide: Doing the Distributed Conclusion Test 219

The Distributed Eye Group Test 219

Guide: Validity of Categorical Syllogisms: The Test Method 220

Evaluating Categorical Syllogisms: The Venn Method 220

Guide: Validity of Chiselled Syllogisms: Venn Method 234

Chapter Summary 235

Argument Forms Studied in the Affiliate 236

Guide: Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Chiselled

Arguments 237

C H A P T East R 7 Analogical Arguments 239

Identifying Analogical Arguments 240

The Form of Analogies 241

Illustrative Analogies 243

Uses of Analogies 248

Logical Analogies 250

Refutation past Logical Illustration 251

Evaluating Analogical Arguments 254

The Truthful Premises Examination 254

The Proper Grade Test 257

Analogies, Consistency, and False Beliefs 260

Chapter Summary 265

Argument Forms Studied in the Chapter 266

Guide: Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Analogical

Arguments 267

C H A P T E R 8 Statistical Arguments 269

Descriptive Statistics 270

The Many Meanings of "Average" 271

The Hateful 272

The Weighted Mean 272

The Mode 273

The Midrange 273

The Median 273

Outliers and Resistance 274

Guide 275

Standard Departure 280

Distributions 280

Regressions 285

Identifying Statistical Arguments 289

Parts of a Statistical Argument 290

Statistical Arguments and Analogical Arguments 292

Evaluating Statistical Arguments 295

The True Bounds Test 295

The Proper Form Exam 296

Guideline 1: Size 297

Guideline 2: Variety 297

Sampling Techniques 298

Statistical Fallacies 301

Fallacy: Hasty Generalization 301

Fallacy: Biased Sample 301

Fallacy: Biased Questions 302

Fallacy: False Precision 302

Chapter Summary 307

Argument Forms Studied in the Chapter 308

Guide: Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Statistical

Arguments 309

C H A P T Due east R 9 Causal Arguments 311

The Many Meanings of "Cause" 312

Cause as Necessary Condition 313

Cause as Sufficient Condition 315

Cause as Necessary and Sufficient Status 315

Contributory Cause 315

Primary Cause 316

Identifying Causal Arguments 319

The Form of a Causal Argument 319

Evaluating Causal Arguments 324

The True Premises Test and the Proper Form Test 324

Premise (ane): Correlation 324

Binary and Scalar Features 324

Binary Correlation 325

Scalar Correlation 325

Premise (1) and the True Premises Test: Factory'due south Methods 328

The Method of Agreement 328

The Method of Difference 329

The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference 329

The Method of Scalar Variation 330

The Limits of Factory's Methods 330

Premise (1) and the Proper Grade Test: Correlation Is Non Causation 331

Fallacy: Jerky Cause 332

Fallacy: Causal Slippery Gradient 332

Premise (2) and the True Premises Examination: Causes and Time 335

Premise (two) and the Proper Form Test: The Post Hoc Fallacy and

The Hasty Crusade Fallacy 336

Premise (3) and the True Premises Test: Third-Party Causes 337

Premise (3) and the Proper Course Exam: The Common Cause Fallacy 339

Premise (4) and the True Premises Test: Casual Correlation 339

Premise (four) and the Proper Form Examination: The Render

of the Hasty Cause Fallacy 340

The Scientific Method 347

Step 1: Identify the Question to Be Answered 347

Step 2: Formulate a Hypothesis 348

Pace three: Bank check for Correlations 349

Back to Step 2: Formulate a Hypothesis 350

Pace 4: Check for Reverse Causes, Third-Party Causes,

and Coincidental Correlation 351

Back to Step i: Identify New Questions 351

An Case of the Scientific Method 351

Chapter Summary 362

Argument Forms Studied in the Chapter 363

Guide: Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Causal Arguments 364

C H A P T Due east R ten Moral Arguments 366

Identifying Moral Arguments 367

Values: Frequently Overlooked Bounds 368

The Nature of Moral Arguments 372

Moral Arguments and Truth 372

Moral Arguments, Emotion, and Cocky-Interest 373

Evaluating Moral Arguments 374

Consequentialist Moral Arguments 376

What Sorts of Consequences Are Morally Important? 377

Who Is Morally Of import? 380

What's the Correct Corporeality of the Morally Of import Consequences? 382

Deontic Moral Arguments 383

Universalizability 385

Cooperation 385

Aretaic Moral Arguments 390

Moral Conflict 391

A Final Thought 394

Chapter Summary 395

Argument Forms Studied in the Affiliate 395

Guide: Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Moral Arguments 396

Answers to Selected Exercises 398

Reference Guide 433

Summary Guide for Identifying, Standardizing, and Evaluating Arguments 433

Argument Forms Studied in the capacity 436

Alphabetical List of Fallacies 443

Alphabetical List of Guides 443

Alphabetical List of Habits of a Critical Thinker 444

Listing of Citations 445

Alphabetize 461

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